DETERMINATION OF SOME TRACE METALS IN FISH, SEDIMENT AND SOME WATER BODIES WITHIN KADUNA METROPOLIS
DETERMINATION OF SOME TRACE METALS IN FISH, SEDIMENT AND SOME WATER BODIES WITHIN KADUNA METROPOLIS
BY
ALICE GARBA
KPT/CST/10/1297
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KADUNA POLYTECHNIC, KADUNA
SEPTEMBER, 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page................................................................................................... i
Approval page.......................................................................................... ii
Declaration................................................................................................ iii
Dedication................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgement..................................................................................... v
Table of Content........................................................................................ vi
Abstract..................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Justification of the study.................................................................. 5
1.2 Aim and Objectives.......................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO
Review of related literature........................................................................ 6
2.1Trace Metal.......................................................................................... 6
2.2Fish...................................................................................................... 15
2.3Water.................................................................................................... 16
2.4Sediment............................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE
3.0Materials and Method.......................................................................... 19
3.1Chemical reagent.................................................................................. 19
3.2Apparatus............................................................................................ 19
3.3Sample site and selection...................................................................... 20
3.4Sampling and sample preparation of water sample............................. 20
3.5Sampling and sample preparations of sediment sample....................... 21
3.6Sampling of fish................................................................................... 22
3.7Digestion.............................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0Result................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0Discussion............................................................................................ 26
5.1Conclusion........................................................................................... 29
5.2Recommendation.................................................................................. 29
References................................................................................................. 30
Appendix.................................................................................................. 35
ABSTRACT
The present work was carried out with the aim to determine the levels of lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn) and Manganese (Mn) in fish, sediment and water in stadium river, Barnawa, Babban Saura and Kabala Doki within Kaduna metropolis. 20 samples (5 samples of the fish from each location were collected) including the water and sediment. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used to estimate and evaluate the level of these metals. The high concentration of Pb was found in sediment (55.8 + 0.023) ppm in stadium river and its significantly different (p<0.05). however, the Pb level in fish (4.58 ± 0.085) in Babban Saura river and that of water (0.259 ± 0.021) ppm in Babban Saura. High level of Cadmium content was recorded in sediment (6.8 ± 0.002) ppm in Babban Saura river and its significantly different (p < 0.05). However, the cadmium level in fish (0.71 ± 0.003) ppm in Babban Saura river and it significantly different (p < 0.05). High zinc content was observed in sediment (286.2 ± 0.033) ppm in stadium river and it significantly different (p< 0.05) and also high level of cadmium in fish (12.47 ± 9,790) ppm in Babban Saura and that of water (0.216 ± 0.026)ppm in Babban Saura river and it significantly different (p < 0.05). The manganese level in sediment (111.2 ± 0.541) in Barnawa River, in fish (9.45 ± 0.425) ppm and that of water (0.066 ± 0.001) ppm.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INRODUCTION
Trace metals are metals in extremely small quantities that are present inanimals and plant cells tissues(Sigel et al., 2013). Trace metals includeiron, magnesium, lithium, zinc, copper, chromium, nickel, cobalt, vanadium, arsenic, molybdenum, manganese, and selenium. Trace metals though required in smaller quantities, are to be taken in diet as they are required by the body for specific function but taking them in excess causes various problems, for examples fluorine is required for the formation of bones and enamel on teeth. However,when taken in more quantities due to its excessive content in ground water by people in some areas, itcauses a disease called " fluorosis", inwhich bones deformation and yellowing of teeth are seen (Bender et al., 2009).
Some metals are naturally found in the body and are necessary for proper human health; iron can help to prevent anemia, and zinc is acofactor in over 100 enzyme reactions. Although trace metals are good for humans, but in high doses they may be toxic to the body (AmericanCollege of medical toxicology, 2013).
Trace metals pollution can arise from many source;but most commonly arise from the purification of metals e.g the smelting of copper and the preparation of nuclear fuels (Micheal,2010).Metals toxicity is thetoxic effect of certain metals in certain forms and doses on life. Some metals are toxic when they form poisonous soluble compounds.Certain metals have no biological role, i.e. are not essential minerals, or are toxic when in a certain form (Dartmouth, 2013). Not all trace metals are particularly toxic, and some are essential such as iron.The definition may also include trace elements when considered inabnormally high toxic doses. Trace metals sometimes initiate the action of an essential element in the body, interfering with metabolic processes to cause illness (American College of Medical Toxicology,2013).
Lead (Pb)
Lead is a chemical elements in the carbon groups with symbol Pb (fromlatin; plumbum) and atomic number 82, is a soft malleable poor metal.It is also counted as a heavy metal. Metallic lead has a bluish-white colour after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull greyish colour when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome silver when it is melted into a liquid (Terreantt, 1998).
Lead is used in building constructions, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, as parts of solders powders fusible alloys, and as a radiation shield. Lead has the higher atomic number of all the stables elements, although the next higher element, bismuth has a half life that is so long (Much longer than the age of the universe) that can be considered stable. Lead at certain contact degrees, is a poisonous substance to animals including humans it damages the nervous systemand causes brain disorder. Excessive lead also causes blood disorders’ in animals (Thurmeret al., 20012)
Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol (Cd) and atomic number 48. This soft bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stablemetals in group 12,mercury. Like zinc, it prefers oxidationstate +2 in most of its compounds and like mercury it shows low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in that, they do not have partly filled or element shell in the elemental or common oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in the earth crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by stronger and Herman, both in Germany (Morrow, 2010).
Zinc (Zn)
Even though zinc is an essential requirement for healthy body, excess zinc can be harmful, and cause zinc toxicity. Excessive absorption of zinc can suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion insolution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates and even vertebrate fish(Dawn, et al; 2003).
Zinc is found as co-factor in over 300 different enzymes and thus is involved in a wide variety of biochemical processes. Zinc interacts with the hormones insulin to ensure proper function and thus, trace mineral has an important role in regulation of blood glucose level via insulin action (Prasad, 2013).
Manganese (Mn)
Manganese is a chemical element designated by the symbol Mn. It hasthe atomic number 25. Is found as a free element in nature (often in combination with iron) and in many minerals. Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels (Lide, et al., 2004).
Water borne manganese has a greater bio-availability than dietary manganese. According to results from a 2010 study, higher levels exposure to manganese in drinking water are associated with increasedintellectual impairment and reduced intelligence quotients in school children. It is hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7million americansatrisk (Roth, et al.,2013).
1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Generally, people are eating fish and drinking water randomly without knowing that there may be an amount of trace metals (heavy metals) that has no vital or beneficial effects on the human body and their accumulation over time in the body of human can cause serious illness. So in view of this, there is need to evaluate the level of toxic metals in fish and water so as to reveal potential toxic effects when consumed.
1 2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this work is to determine the amount of trace metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, and Mn) in fish, sediment and some water bodies within Kaduna metropolis.
However, the specific objectives are:
1. To analysePb, Cd, Zn, and Mn in samples of fish, sediment and water bodies using AAS.
2. To compare the concentration of these metals in fish sediment and
water bodies.
water bodies.
3. To find out which of these samples have the highest concentration of metals, thus contributing to the effective monitoring of both environmental quality and the health status of the organism inhabiting the water bodies
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 TRACE METAL
Trace metals are chemical elements with a specific gravity that is at least 5times the specific gravity of water. The specific gravity is a measure density of a given amount of solid substance when it is compared to an equal amount of water.Some well known trace metallic elements with specific gravity that is 5 or more times that of water are arsenic, 5.7; cadmium, 8.65; lead, 11.34; and mercury, 13.54 ( Lide, 1992).
There are 35 metals that concern us because of occupational orresidential exposure 23 of these are the toxic metals, some of these are; antimony arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, gold, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, platinum, silver, tellurium, thallium vanadium, and zinc (Gebel et.al.,1996). Interestingly small amounts of those elements are common in our environment and diet, and are actually necessary for good health, but large amounts of any of them may cause acute or chronic toxicity (poisoning). The level of the toxicity of this metal can result in damage or reduced mental and central nervous function, lower energy levels, and damage to blood composition, lungs, kidney, liver and other vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressive physical, muscular and neurological degenerative processes that mimic Alzheimer's disease, parkinson’s disease, molecular dystrophy and multiple selerosis. Allergies are not uncommon and repeated long-term contact with some metals or their compounds may even cause cancer (IOSHIC, 1999).
The association of symptoms indicative of acute toxicity is not difficult to recognize because the symptoms are usually severe, rapid in onset and associated with a known explosive or ingestion some of these symptoms are; cramping, nausea, vomiting, pain, sweating, headaches, and difficulty breathing. In paired cognitive and language skills, mania and convulsion (ferner, 2001)
Within the European community the eleven elements, of highest concern are arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, tin and thallium, the emission of which are regulated in waste incinerators. Some of these elements are actually necessary for humans in minute amounts (cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, nickel) while others are carcinogenic or toxic, affecting, among others, the central nervous system (manganese, mercury, lead, arsenic) the kidneys or liver ( mercury, lead, cadmium, copper) or skin, bones, or teeth ( nickel, cadmium, copper, chromium) (Dupler, 2001).
2.1.1 Classification of Trace Metals
Trace metals consist of both biological, as well as non-biological essential metals. Biological essential trace metals include copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). Iron for instance forms an essential part of haemoglobin, a protein in our blood which transports oxygen from the lungs to other tissues and zinc serves as a cofactor of many enzymes such as superoxide dismutase that convert peroxide and oxygen in an effort to protect the cells against the effect of free radicals (Kennish, 1998).
Although they are necessary, they become toxic at high concentrations (Kennish, 1998). Non biological essential trace metals include lead (Pb) mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn) and arsenic (Ar). The order of toxicity (from low tohigh) has been suggested as follows; cobalt, aluminum, chromium, lead, nickel, zinc, copper, cadmium (Schreiber, et; al., 2002). In marineenvironments however, three metals are of primary concern, lead, mercuryand cadmium (Schreiber et.al., 2002).
2.1.2 Importanceof Trace Metals
In small quantities certain trace metals are nutritionally essential for healthy life. Some of these are referred to as trace elements (e.g iron, copper, manganese, and zinc). These elements, or some of them are commonly found naturally in food stuffs, in fruits and vegetables, and in commercially available multivitamin products (IOSHIC, 1999). Many of these products are in our homes and actually add to our quality of life when properly used. Diagnostics medical applications include direct ingestion of gallium during radiological procedure, closing with chromium in parenteral nutritional mixture, and the use of lead as a radiation shield around x ray equipment (Robert, 1999).
2.1.3 Trace Metals Toxicity
These metals become toxic when they are not metabolized by the body and accumulate in soft tissue. Trace metals may enter the human body through food, water, air or absorption through skin. When they come in contact with humans in agriculture and in manufacturing, pharmaceutical, industries, or residential settings. Industrial exposure accounts for a common route of exposure for adults (Robert, 1999). Children may develop trace levels from the normal hand to mouthactivity of small children who come in contact with contaminated soil orby actually eating object that are not food (dirt or paint chips) (Dupler, 2001). Lesscommon rout of exposure are during a radiological procedure,from inappropriate dosing or monitoring during intravenous (Parenteral)nutrition, from a broken thermometer (smith,et al., 1997). Or from suicideor homicide attempt.As a rule acute poisoning is more likely to result from inhalation or skin contact of dust, fumes or vapours, materials in the work place. However, lesser levels of contamination may occur inresidential settings, particularly in older homes with lead paint or old plumbing (IOSHIC,1999).
2.1.4 Commonly Encountered Toxic Trace Metals
As noted earlier, there are 35 metals of concern 23 of them called the heavy metals, toxicity can result from any of these metals.
Arsenic
Arsenic the most common acute toxic metal poisoning inadults and is number 1 on the ATSDR"s "top 20 list". Arsenic enters into the environment by the smelting process of copper, zinc, and lead as well as by the manufacturing of glasses. Arsenic gas is a common by-product, produced by the manufacturing of pesticides that contain arsenic. Arsenic may also be found in water supplies worldwide, leading to exposure of shell fish, and haddock. Other sources are paints rate poisoning, fungicides and wood preservatives. Target organs are the blood, kidney, and central nervous, digestive and skin systems (Roberts, 1999).
Lead
Lead is number 2 on the ATSDR"S "top 20 list. Lead accounts for most of the cases of pediatric heavy metal poisoning. It is a very soft metals and was used in pipes, train and soldering materials for many years. Millions of homes built before 1940 still contain lead leg in painted surface leading to chronic exposure from weathering, flake, chalking and just every year, industry produces about 2.5 million tons of lead throughout the world. Target organs are the bones, brain, blood, kidneys and thyroid gland (Roberts, 1999).
Mercury
Mercury is generated naturally in the environment for the degassing of earth crust, from volcanic emissions. It exists in three forms; elemental mercury, organic and inorganic mercury. Moving operations, chloroalkali plants, and paper industries are significant producers of mercury (Goyer, 1996).Mercury continues to be used in thermometers, thermostats, and dental amalgam (many researchers suspect dental amalgam as being a possible source of mercury toxicity. Medicines, such as mercurochrome and merthiolate, are still available. Algaecides and childhood vaccines are also potential sources. Inhalation is the most frequent cause of exposure to mercury (Obrian, 2001)
Chromium
Water insoluble chromium (iii) compounds and chromium metals are not considered a health hazard, while the toxicity and carcinogenic properties of chromium (iv) have been known for a long time (Barcelox et al., l999). Because of the specific transport mechanisms,only limited amounts of chromium (iii) enters the cells. Several in vitro studies indicated that high concentrations of chromium (iii) in the cell can lead to DNA damage. Acute oral toxicity ranges between 1900 and 3308 1Kg.the proposed beneficial effect of chromium (iii) and the use asdietary supplements yielding some controversial results, suggests that moderate uptake of chromium (iii) through dietary supplement poses no risks (Donald, 1999). World health organization(WHO) recommended maximum allowable concentration in drinking water for chromium (vi) is 0.05 milligrams per liter (katz et al; 1992). Inthe body, chromium (iv) is reduced by several mechanisms to chromium (iii) already in the blood before it enters the cells. The chromium (iii) is excreted from the body whereas the chromate ion is transferred into the cell by a transport mechanism, by which sulfate and phosphate ions enter the cell. The acute toxicity of chromium (vi) is due to its strong oxidation properties. After it reaches the blood stream it damages the kidneys, the liver and blood cells through oxidation reaction. Hemolyses,renal and liver failure are the results of these damages. Aggressivea dialysis can improve the situation (Dayanet al., 2001)
2.1.5 Symptoms of Exposure and Toxicity
Symptoms of exposure and toxicity of some metals exposure to is generally classified as acute, 14 days or less, intermediate 15-354 days; and chronic, more than 365 days (Ferner, 2001). Additionally acute toxicity is usually from a sudden or unexpected exposure to a high level of the trace metal (e.g from careless handling, inadequate safety precautions, or an accidental spill or release of toxic material often in a laboratory, industrial ortransportation setting. Chronic toxicity result from repeated or continuous exposure, leading to an accumulation of the trace metals or substance in the body. Chronic exposure may result from contaminated food, air water or dust; living near a hazardous waste site; spending time in areas with deteriorating lead paint, it can occur in either the home or workplace, (Ferner, 2001). Symptoms of chronic toxicity are often similar to many common conditions and may not be readily recognised. Route of exposure include inhalation, eye contact, and injection (Dupler, 2001).
Exposure to arsenic occurs mostly in the work place, near hazardous waste sites, or in area with high natural levels. Symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning are sore throat from breathing, red skin at contact point, or severe abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea, often within 1hr after injection (Anderton, 2001). Cardiovascular changes are often subtle in the early stages but can progress to cardiovascular collapse. Symptoms typically described is a burning sensation (Needles and pins") in hand and feet. Neuropathy (inflammation & affecting the nervous) is usually gradual and occurs over several years (Anderton, 2001).
Acute exposure to lead is also more likely to occur in the workplace, particularly in manufacturing processes that include the use of lead (e.g.where batteries are manufactured or lead is recycled). Even printing ink,gasoline and fertilizer contain lead (Zayaset al., 1996). Symptoms includeabdominal pain, convulsion, hypertension,and renal dysfunction, loss of appetite, fatigue, and sleeplessness. Others are hallucinations, headache, defects, mental retardation, autism psychosis, allergies, weight loss, muscular weakness, and paralysis (beginning in the forearms) (Yamagaka, et al., 1997)
Acute mercury exposure may occur in the mining industry and in the manufacturing of fungicides, thermometer, and thermostats. Liquidmercury is particularly attractive to children because of its beautiful silvercolour and unique behaviour when spilled (Zayaset al., 1996). Children are more likely to incur acute exposure in the home from ingesting mercury from a broken thermometer or drinking medicine that contains mercury. Because mercury vapours concentrate at floor levels, crawling children are subject to a significant hazard when the mercury is sprinted throughout the house during ceremonies or when there is an accidental spill (Zayasetal., 1996) symptoms of acute exposure are cough, sore throat, metallic test in the mouth, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea exposure to mercury may result in permanent damage to the centralnervous system (Ewanet al., 1996).
Acute exposure to cadmium generally occurs in the work place particularly in the manufacturing processes of batteries and colour pigments, electroplating andgalvanising processes. Symptoms of acute cadmium exposure are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, difficulty in breathing.Chronic exposure to cadmium can result in chronic obstructive lung disease, renal diseases, and frigate bones (Anderton,2011).
2.2 FISH
Fish is a food consumed by many species including human. The word fish refers to both the animal and to the food prepared from it. Fish provides a good source of high protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either white fish, oily or shell fish. Fish has been an important source of protein for human throughout recorded history.
Fish products have been shown to contain varying amount of heavy or toxic metals. Metals can produce deterions effect on tissues of marine organisms, they can lead to death of the organism. This level of toxicity is known as lethal toxicity. A relatively lower concentration, organism may suffer from various kinds of adverse effects but still survive (Canada Food Inspection Agency, 2009).
Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium.
IMPORTANCE
Fish can be used as food, aquaculture and fish farming. It is used for recreation purpose such as fish keeping, recreational fishing and angling. (Glecointre et al,2007).
2.3 WATER
Water is the most common liquid on earth. It covers about 71.4% of the earth. Pure water has no smell, taste, or colour. Lakes, oceans and rivers are madeof water. Rain is water that falls from clouds in the sky. If water gets very cold (below 0◦C)it freezes and become ice (kulshreshtha, 1998).
Plant, animals including human beings mostly use water, they drink water to live. Itgives a medium for chemical reactions to take place, and is the main part of blood. It keeps the body temperature the same by sweating from the skin. Water helps blood carry nutrients from the stomach to all parts of the body to keep the body alive, water also helps the blood to carry oxygen from lungs to the body. Saliva which helps animals and human being digest food is mostly water. The human body is between 60% and 70% water (C.I.A, 2008).
2.4 SEDIMENT
Sedimentsare loose particles of sand, clay, silt and other substances that settle at the bottom of water body. They come from crossing soil and from decomposing plants and animals, winds, water and ice often carry these particles great distance (EPA, 2012). Sediments are important sinks for various pollutants like pesticides and also play a significant role in the remobilization of contaminants, aquatic system under favourable conditions and in interactions between water and sediment (Rashed, 2001).
Many of the sediments in our rivers, lake and oceans, have been contaminated by pollutants. Some of these pollutants, such as the pesticides, DDT and the industrial chemical known as polychlorinated biphenyls (RGBs) were released into the environment long ago. The use of DDT and RGBs in the United States was banned in the 1970s, but these chemicals persist for many years. Some flow directly from industrial and municipals waste discharge, while others come from polluted urban and agricultural areas. Still other contaminants are carried through the air, leading in lakes and streams far from the factories and other facilities that produced in cases like this, the sediment may serve as a contaminant reservoir or source of contaminants (EPA2012).
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 CHEMICAL REAGENTDeionized water
Conc nitric acid (HNO3)
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
3.2 APPARATUS
The materials used for the research project are as follows
Dessicator
Polythene bag
Reagent bottles
Mortar and pestle
Measuring cylinders
Filter paper
Sheet of paper
Cornical flasks
Weighing balance (model ADOI)
Funnels
Stirrer
Sample bottles
Muffle furnace (model SXL)
Crucible
Oven
Hot plate
AAS machine (model no ICE 3000 series AAS)
3.3 SAMPLE SITE AND SELECTION
Samples in the research that include fish, sediment and water were taken from different sampling sites namely: Barnawa, BabbanSaura,Stadium and Kabala Doki respectively. The sample sites selected within kaduna metropolis are used mostly by local fisher men for fishing and commercial purposes.
3.4 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION OF WATER SAMPLE
The water samples were collected in triplicate from Barnawa, BabbanSaura, stadium and Kabala doki, the sampling container were rinsed with distilled water and soaked with 1:1 HNO3before sampling. 100cm3 of the water sample were taken at each sampling sites and brought to the laboratory.
3.4.1 LABORATORY PREPARATION
100ml of the water sample was measured using measuring cylinderand poured into a clean 250ml conical flask. 10ml of concentrated nitric acid wasmeasured and poured into the water sample. It was then heated untilthe volume remained about 10ml. The sample was then allowed to cool.10ml of distilled water was poured into the sample and then filtered, filtrate was transferred to 100ml volumetric flask and was made up to 100 mark. The filtrate was analysed for Pb, Cd Zn and Mnthe same procedure was use for the rest of the sample
3.4.2 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
100cm3 each of the filtrate was then poured into the sampling bottles for the analysis of (Pb, Cd, Mn, and Zn) using AAS machine.
3.5 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATIONS OF SEDIMENT SAMPLE
Sediment samples were collected in triplicate from the various place namely:BabbanSaura,Barnawa, stadium and KabalaDoki, using polythene bag. The samples were transported into the laboratory.
3.5.1 LABORATORYPREPARATION
The samples were air- dried in the laboratory at room temperature toreduce the water content. It was oven dried for 1hr. once oven dried, the sampleswere powdered using pestle and mortar and then sieved.1 gram of the powdered sand was weighed and poured into 250ml conical flask, 5ml of nitric acid was added into itand mixed. The mixture was then heated to dryness and then allowed to cool, 10ml of distilled water was then added and filtered and transferred into a 100ml volumetric flask and then made up to 100 mark. The same procedure was use for the rest of the sediment samples
3.5.2 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
100ml each of the filtrate was then poured into the sampling bottles forthe analysis of (Pb, Cd,Mn, and Zn) using AAS machine.
3.6 SAMPLING OF FISH
A total of 20 samples of cat fish (clariasgariepinus were collected with net by local fishermen. The fish samples were transported into the laboratory in ice packed containers.
3.6.1 LABORATORY PREPARATION
Before analysis, liver, gills, stomach-intestine, and head were removed. The muscle of the fish samples were now thoroughly washed with tap water and later rinsed with distilled water, the fish samples were now oven dried for 2hrs at 180oc. It was allowed to cool and then later ground using pestle and mortar. 10g of the content was then weighed and then charred on a heating mantle in crucible for 2-3hrs just to burn the organic matter. The crucible was immediately transferred into a muffle furnace and ignited at 450-500oc over a period of 6-8hrs in order to ash it. The crucible was cooled in a desiccator.
3.7 DIGESTION
The ash sample was poured into a conical flask; 5ml of hydrogen peroxide was measured using measuring cylinder and added into the ash sample. It was then heated to dryness and allowed to cool. 5ml of nitric acid was again measured and poured into the content and then heated to dryness. It was allowed to cool, 10ml of distilled water was added and then) Filtered, thefilterate was transferred to 50ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark. The same procedure was used for the rest of the samples.
3.7.1 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
100ml each of the filtrate was poured into the sampling bottles for the analysis of (Pb, Cd, Mn and Zn) using AAS machines.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT
The result of the research carried out to determine trace metals concentrations in fish, sediment and water in some selected areas within Kaduna metropolis are shown below:
Table 1: The level of trace metals (ppm) in water samples from different locations and comparison/guidelines with WHO guideline.
Locations
|
Element
| |||
Pb (mg/l)
|
Cd (Mg/l)
|
Mn (Mg/l)
|
Zn (Mg/l)
| |
Stadium river
|
0.074 ± 0.040
|
0.052 ± 0.006
|
0.051 ± 0.039
|
0.170 ± 0.017
|
Barnawa River
|
0.058 ± 0.014
|
0.054 ± 0.06
|
0. 042 ± 0.002
|
0.158 ± 0.015
|
Kabala Doki
|
0.148 ± 0.067
|
0.055 ± 0.008
|
0.010 ± 0.005
|
0.451 ± 0.08
|
BabbanSaura
|
0.259 ±0.021
|
0.066 ± 0.001
|
0.066 ± 0.001
|
0.216 ± 0.026
|
WHO permissible limit
Pb 0.01 Cd 0.003 Mn0.1-0.5 Zn 3.0
Values are presented as mean ± S.D
Table 2: The level of trace metals (ppm) in fish samples from different locations and comparison/guidelines with WHO guideline.
Locations
|
Element
| |||
Pb (mg/kg)
|
Cd (Mg/kg)
|
Mn (Mg/kg)
|
Zn (Mg/kg)
| |
Stadium river
|
1.45 ± 0.012
|
0.58 ± 0.006
|
0.44 ± 0.011
|
3.87 ± 0.100
|
Barnawa River
|
0.53 ± 0.011
|
0.14 ± 0.004
|
3.76 ± 0.020
|
1.55 ± 0.050
|
Kabala Doki
|
3.35 ± 0.120
|
0.57 ± 0.007
|
0.54 ± 0.001
|
5.14 ± 0.012
|
BabbanSaura
|
4.58 ± 0.085
|
0.71 ± 0.003
|
9.45 ± 0.425
|
12.47 ± 0.790
|
WHO permissible Limit Pb 1.5 Cd 0.2 Mn 2.5 Zn 150 Values are presented as mean ± S. D
Table 3: The level of trace metals (ppm) in sediment from different locations
Locations
|
Element
| |||
Pb (Mg/kg)
|
Cd (Mg/kg)
|
Mn (Mg/kg)
|
Zn (Mg/kg)
| |
Stadium river
|
55.8 ± 0.023
|
5.7 ± 0.005
|
2.9 ± 0.003
|
286.2 ± 0.033
|
Barnawa River
|
16.9 ± 0.020
|
5.3 ± 0.005
|
111.2 ± 0.541
|
21.2 ± 0.015
|
Kabala Doki
|
20.8 ± 0.111
|
4.6 ± 0.002
|
81.8 ± 0.372
|
24.9 ± 0.025
|
BabbanSaura
|
43.1 ± 0.47
|
6.8 ± 0.002
|
6.8 ± 0.002
|
73.6 ± 0.307
|
EPA limit Pb 2-200 Cd 0.01-0.70 Mn 20-3000 Zn 10-300
Values are presented as mean ± S.D
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
The level of lead in the water samples ranges from (0.058 – 0.259) ppm. The highest value being (0.259 ± 0.021) ppm for Babban Saura and the lowest value being (0.058 ± 0.014) ppm for Barnawa river. The value of Pb in the water samples exceed the WHO permissible limit (0.015). The level of Pb in sediment samples ranges from (16.9-55.8)ppm the highest value being (55.8 ± 0.0.23)ppm for stadium river and the lowest value being (16.9 ± 0.220)ppm Barnawa sediment. It shows that the value are significantly in the average lead contents in various location. The level of Pb in fish samples ranges from (0.53-4.58) ppm the highst value being (4.58 ± 0.085)ppm for BabbanSaura and the lowest value being (0.53± 0.011)ppm. The value of Pb in fish samples exceed the WHO permissible limit (0.015).toxicity of lead (Pb) is well documented in literature being toxic (Thurmer et al., 2002).
Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates both in soft tissue and the bones. It damages the nervous system and cause brain disorders (Thurmer et al., 2012). The level of Pb reported in this research was higher when compared with the (WHO) permissible unit.
Cadmium (Cd) level in water is not significant because the cadmium contents in all location are almost the same, stadium water sample (0.052 ± 0.006) ppm Kabala Doki (0.055 ± 0.008) and BabbanSaura which is a little bit higher than the rest (0.066 ± 0.001) ppm. The level of cadmium range from (4.6-6.8)ppm. The highest value being (6.8 ± 0.002) ppm for BabbanSaura and the lowest value being (4.6 ± 0.002) ppm for KabalanDoki. It shows that the values are significantly different in the various location (p< 0.05). The level of cadmium in fish range from (0.14-0.71) ppm. The highest values being (0.71 ± 0.003)ppm for BabbanSaura and value of cadmium in the fish sample exceed the WHO permissible limit (0.2). Cadmium (Cd) has no known biological functions in higher organism (Morrow, 2010). Cadmium (Cd) level was higher than the permissible limit provided by the (WHO). It is therefore not safe for human consumption.
From the significant values, since (P = 0.051 > 0.05) ppm, (P = 0.042 > 0.05) and (0.010 > 0.05). There is no significant different in the content of manganese in water samples in the different locations. The level of manganese in sediment samples range from (2.9-111.2) ppm. The highest value being (11.2 ± 0.541)ppm for BabbanSaura. The values f manganese in sediment. The level of manganese in fish samples range from (0.54-9.45) ppm. The highest value being (9.45 ± 0.425) ppm for BabbanSaura and the lowest value being (0.54 ± 0.001) ppm for KabalanDoki. The value of manganese in fish samples is within the range of WHO permissible limit (2.5).
The level of Zinc in water samples range from (0.158-0.451)ppm. The highest value being (0.451 ± 0.08) ppm for KabalanDoki and the lowest value being (0.158 ± 0.015) ppm for Barnawa. The values are within the ranges of the permissible limit by WHO. However, the level of Zn in sediment samples ranges from (21.2-286.2) ppm. The highest value being (286.2 ± 0.033) ppm from stadium and the lowest value being (21.2 ± 0.015) ppm from Barnawa.this show that the values are within the ranges by EPA. The level of Zn in fish samples range from (12.47 ± 0.790) ppm from BabbanSaura and the lowest value being (1.55 ±0.050) ppm. The values of zinc in fish sample is within the permissible limit by WHO (150mg/kg). Even though Zinc is an essential requirement for healthy body, excess zinc can be harmful and causes zinc toxicity. Excessive absorption of zinc can suppress copper and iron absorption (Dawn N et al., 2003). Zinc interacts with the hormone insulin to ensure proper function and thus, this metal has an important role in regulation of blood glucose level via insulin action (Formire, 1990).
Zinc also serve as a co-factor for numerous antioxidant enzymes and is necessary for protein synthesis. Plants which exhibit hyper accumulation can be used to remove heavy metals from soil by concentrating them in their biomatter (Yamanaka et al., 1997).
The result of this research shows that samples from BabbanSaura river and stadium river mostly exhibit hyper accumulation, this may result due to the activities going on around the area.
5.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the present research provides data on trace metals found in fish, water and sediment within Kaduna metropolis. High Pb content was found in fish (4.58 ± 0.85) ppm and Zn also found in sediment (286.2 ± 0.033) ppm. These amounts may be hazardous if the fish and water are taken in large quantities (Afshin et al., 2008)
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations were made:
1. The result of this project highlights the need for government to take a serious control measures in order to reduce the trace metals accumulation in the environment
2. Public enlightment should be carried out to the fishermen and consumers base to sentized them on the toxic effects of these trace metals
3. These metals have toxic potential, but the detrimental impact becomes apparent only after subsequent exposure. It is therefore suggested that regular monitoring of trace metals in the environment is essential in order to prevent excessive build up of these metals in the human food chain
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APPENDIX
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Trace Metals in Various Locations
Locations
|
Trace metals (Mg/l)
|
Experimental Units
| |||||||
Water
|
Sediment
|
Fish
| |||||||
Stadium river
|
Lead
Cadmium
Manganese
Zinc
|
0.074
0.052
0.051
0.170
|
0.040
0.006
0.039
0.017
|
0.558
0.057
0.029
2.862
|
0.023
0.005
0.003
0.033
|
0.145
0.058
0.044
0.387
|
0.012
0.006
0.011
0.100
| ||
Barnawa River
|
Lead
Cadmium
Manganese
Zinc
|
0.058
0.054
0.042
0.158
|
0.014
0.006
0.002
0.015
|
0.169
0.053
1.112
0.212
|
0.020
0.005
0.541
0.015
|
0.053
0.014
0.376
0.155
|
0.011
0.004
0.020
0.050
| ||
Kabala Doki
|
Lead
Cadmium
Manganese
Zinc
|
0.148
0.055
0.010
0.451
|
0.067
0.008
0.005
0.088
|
0.208
0.046
0.818
0.249
|
0.111
0.002
0.372
0.025
|
0.335
0.057
0.054
0514
|
0.120
0.007
0.001
0.012
| ||
BabbanSaura
|
Lead
Cadmium
Manganese
Zinc
|
0.259
0.066
0.066
0.216
|
0.021
0.001
0.001
0.026
|
0.431
0.068
0.068
0.736
|
0.047
0.002
0.002
0.307
|
0.458
0.071
0.946
1.247
|
0.085
0.003
0.425
0.790
| ||
Experiment Unit: Sediment
|
Location
|
6000
|
5000
|
4000
|
3000
|
2000
|
1000
|
Babban Saura River
|
Kabalan Doki River
|
Barnawa River
|
Stadium River
|
Stadium River
|
Barnawa River
|
Kabalan Doki River
|
Babban Saura River
|
0500
|
1000
|
1500
|
2000
|
2500
|
3000
|
Location
|
Experiment Unit: Water
Stadium River
|
Barnawa River
|
Kabalan Doki River
|
Babban Saura River
|
1000
|
2000
|
3000
|
4000
|
5000
|
6000
|
Experiment Unit: Fish
|
Location
|
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
METALS
|
FDA
|
(WATER MG/L)
WHO
|
EPA
|
FISH (WHO) MG/KG
|
Pb
|
0.005
|
0.01
|
0.05
|
1.5
|
Zn
|
-
|
3.0
|
5.0
|
1.50
|
Mn
|
-
|
0.1 – 0.5
|
0.05
|
2.5
|
Cd
|
0.005
|
0.003
|
-
|
-0.2
|
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